Gender Psychology

By
Saul McLeod, PhD
Updated on
Updated on

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Reviewed by
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
&

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Learn about our Editorial Process

Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially
constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man,
girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from
society to society and can change over time

Biological explanations of gender development

Biological sex is fundamentally a biological fact, referring to whether a person is genetically male or female.

It is assigned at birth based on the appearance of genitals, or at conception due to chromosome patterns.

The Role of Chromosomes

Everyone has 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell of their body. One of these pairs is the sex chromosomes, which are crucial in establishing an individual’s biological sex.

  • Females typically have XX chromosomes.
  • Males typically have XY chromosomes.

The Y chromosome is particularly significant because it determines an individual’s sex. It carries a specific area called the Sex-Determining Region Y (SRY) gene.

This SRY gene triggers a chain of events from a very early stage in the embryo’s development, leading to the formation of the testes.

Without the SRY gene on a Y chromosome, the default development path is female, leading to the development of ovaries and the disintegration of male organs.

There is usually a direct link between an individual’s chromosomes and their external and internal reproductive organs.

The Role of Hormones

While chromosomes initiate the process, most biological sex development is governed by hormones.

Hormones are chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstream and are released prenatally and during adolescence (puberty), influencing biological development, brain, and anatomy.

Their effects are generally slower but longer-lasting than nerve impulses.

Testosterone:

This is a male sex hormone, also known as an androgen. While present in both sexes, it is found in significantly higher concentrations in males, typically around ten times more than in females.

  • Role in Biological Sex: Testosterone begins its role early; the SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers the development of testes (around seven weeks into development), which then start producing testosterone. During puberty, testosterone is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, such as larger muscles, growth of facial and body hair, and a deepening of the voice.
  • Role in Gender (Behavioural Influence): Testosterone is thought to be linked to increased levels of aggression and competitiveness often observed in males. For example, studies on male mice showed decreased aggression after castration (reducing testosterone) and a return of aggression when injected with testosterone.

Oestrogen:

This is the primary female sex hormone. While found in both males and females, it is present in much higher levels in females.

  • Role in Biological Sex: Oestrogen plays a key role in the regulation of the menstrual cycle and the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and maturation of internal genitalia.
  • Role in Gender (Behavioural Influence): Oestrogen is thought to have a behavioural influence on feelings of irritability and levels of cooperative behaviour. It is also associated with increased emotional response to others’ needs and caring behaviour, suggesting women are biologically predisposed to be primary attachment figures. The effects of oxytocin, for instance, are enhanced by oestrogen.

Oxytocin:

This hormone is generally produced in higher quantities in females, though during sex, it is produced in similar amounts in both males and females.

It is also known as the “love hormone” due to its role in promoting pair bonding.

  • Role in Biological Sex/Behaviour: Oxytocin stimulates lactation in females and is thought to produce caring and attachment feelings, important for bonding with newborn babies during breastfeeding, and also in developing attachment in couples. The effects of oxytocin appear to be enhanced in females and suppressed by testosterone, which may allow for increased use of the “tend and befriend” response to stress in females.

Diversity in Sex Development

Diversity in sex development refers to conditions where an individual’s biological sex development varies from the typical XX/XY patterns, affecting their genetic, gonadal, or anatomical characteristics.

Psychologists study individuals who show diversity in sex development to understand biological influences on gender development.

Here are some examples of atypical sex chromosome patterns:

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) is a rare genetic condition (affecting about 1 in 20,000 individuals) where the body is partially or completely insensitive to androgens, such as testosterone.

This insensitivity is usually caused by a dysfunction in the androgen receptor gene, affecting the development of a person’s genitals and reproductive organs.

Chromosomal Pattern

  • Individuals with AIS have XY chromosomes (male chromosomal pattern).
  • Despite this, the body does not fully or at all respond to testosterone, the hormone responsible for male sex development.

Physical Characteristics

  • Genital appearance:
    • No external male genitalia may form.
    • The penis may be underdeveloped or absent.
    • Genitals may appear typically female or ambiguous.
  • Reproductive organs:
    • No womb or ovaries are present.
    • Internal testes may be present but undescended.

Types of AIS

  • Complete AIS (CAIS): The body does not respond to testosterone at all. Genitals appear fully female.
  • Partial AIS (PAIS): The body partially responds to testosterone. Genital appearance varies—may be ambiguous or partially male.

Causes of AIS

  • Genetic cause:
    • Due to a mutation in the androgen receptor gene.
    • The condition is inherited through the maternal line (X-linked inheritance).
    • Women who carry the gene are unaffected but have a 1 in 4 chance of passing AIS to their child.
  • Hormonal causes:
    • Can also be influenced by:
      • Foetal insensitivity to androgens.
      • Maternal hormone exposure (e.g., from medications during pregnancy).

Case Study Example (Caribbean phenomenon):

A remote village in the Caribbean has observed girls “turning into boys” around age 13 for the past 50 years.

These children inherited a faulty gene that prevented their bodies from producing dihydrotestosterone in the womb, which is normally responsible for developing male external anatomy.

Their testes developed internally, but male external organs did not form until puberty when their bodies finally produced the vital chemical.

These children were raised as girls, performing traditional female tasks, but upon reaching puberty, they felt an urge to be male, became more muscular, and easily adjusted to male roles.

This suggests a strong biological influence on sex-role behaviour.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Klinefelter’s Syndrome (KS) is a chromosomal disorder specific to biological males.

A chromosomal disorder in which males are born with an extra X chromosome, resulting in
small testes, absence of sperm, enlarged breasts, intellectual developmental disorder and
behavioural differences. Not an inherited condition but occurring as a result of a random
event at cell division. Also called XXY syndrome.

Chromosomal Pattern and Cause

  • Typical male chromosomes: XY
  • Klinefelter’s pattern: XXY (an extra X chromosome)
  • Cause: It is not inherited but results from a random event during cell division (nondisjunction), either before conception or in early embryonic development.

Physical Characteristics

Individuals with KS typically develop male physical traits but may show signs of reduced masculinity due to lower testosterone levels:

  • Taller than average, with longer limbs
  • Small testes and reduced fertility (often infertile)
  • Little to no facial or body hair
  • May develop breast tissue (gynecomastia)

Psychological and Cognitive Characteristics

KS can be associated with:

  • Learning difficulties, particularly with reading and writing (e.g. dyslexia)
  • Passivity in behavior
  • Emotional sensitivity and, in some cases, aggressive outbursts
  • Increased risk of mild intellectual disability or developmental delays
  • Treatment and Support
  • Testosterone therapy is the most common treatment. It can:
    • Promote more typically masculine physical traits (e.g. facial hair)
    • Improve energy levels, confidence, and mood
    • Help reduce passivity and support cognitive development
  • Psychological and educational support can also be beneficial in managing learning or emotional challenges.

Why It Matters in Psychology [AO3)

Studying Klinefelter’s Syndrome helps researchers:

  • Understand how chromosomal patterns influence sex and gender development
  • Explore the nature vs. nurture debate —how biology interacts with environment and social perception
  • Caution: Since KS is rare, we must be careful not to generalize findings to all individuals with the condition. Psychological traits may also stem from social experiences, such as how others respond to visible physical differences.

Turner’s Syndrome

Turner’s Syndrome (TS) is a chromosomal disorder specific to biological females.

Affects approximately 1 in 2,000 biological females, making it rarer than Klinefelter’s Syndrome.

A chromosomal disorder, specific to females, marked by the absence of all or a part of one of
the two X (female) chromosomes. The effects include gonadal dysgenesis (underdevelopment
or absence of primary and secondary sex characteristics- infertility and various other abnormalities (e.g. short stature, lack of menstruation). It is not an inherited condition, occurring instead as a random event during cell division in early fetal development.

Physical Characteristics

Turner’s Syndrome interferes with sexual development, often leading to gonadal dysgenesis—an underdevelopment of the reproductive system and secondary sex traits.

Common physical traits include:

  • Shorter than average height
  • Lack of menstruation and infertility
  • Underdeveloped breasts and narrow hips
  • Broad chest and webbed neck
  • Immature appearance for age
  • Misshapen or underdeveloped internal organs

Psychological Characteristics

TS is associated with a unique cognitive profile:

  • Strong verbal skills, especially in language and reading
  • Weaker visual-spatial skills compared to peers
  • Tendency to be socially immature, possibly influenced by their physical appearance and how others treat them

Treatment and Implications

Psychological and medical research has led to effective hormone therapies, improving outcomes for individuals with TS:

  • Oestrogen therapy during puberty can:
    • Stimulate breast development
    • Induce menstruation
    • Promote growth (often alongside growth hormone treatment)
  • Early diagnosis and support are crucial for managing both physical and emotional development.

Why It Matters in Psychology [AO3)

  • Nature vs. Nurture: TS provides a real-world example of how biological factors influence development, while also highlighting how social responses to physical traits can shape personality and behavior.
  • Rethinking Gender Norms: Conditions like TS challenge binary models of sex and gender, encouraging psychologists to adopt more inclusive and nuanced perspectives.
  • Support and Wellbeing: Understanding the psychological needs of individuals with TS helps inform ethical care, mental health support, and inclusive education.

⚠️ Important: Because TS is rare, it’s important not to overgeneralize findings. Some psychological traits may result not just from genetics but also from social experiences related to physical appearance and medical treatment.

Gender Identity

Psychologists distinguish between sex and gender.

  • Sex: Biological attributes (e.g., chromosomes, hormones)
  • Gender: Cultural and psychological meanings attached to sex, including:
    • Gender roles (social expectations): a relatively fixed, overly simplified concept of the attitudes and behaviours considered normal and appropriate for a male or female in a particular culture. Gender stereotypes often support the social conditioning of gender roles.
    • Gender identity (self-categorisation): a deeply felt, inherent sense of being a boy, a man, or male; a girl, a woman, or female; or a non-binary gender. This sense of self may or may not correspond to the sex assigned at birth. It is recognised that gender identity is influenced by both environmental and biological factors.

The psychological distinction between gender and sex highlights that someone’s gender identity may not necessarily match what is traditionally expected from their biological sex.

The Gender Binary

The concept of the gender binary is deeply ingrained in many cultures and societies, particularly Western ones.

  • The gender binary is the belief that sex and gender exist in two fixed and mutually exclusive categories:
    • Male/female (sex)
    • Masculine/feminine (gender)
  • This binary assumes that everyone fits neatly into one of these two categories, and that gender naturally follows from biological sex.

Biological Foundations of the Gender Binary

  • The classification is often based on biological characteristics such as:
    • Reproductive organs
    • Chromosomes
    • Hormones
  • This perspective supports the idea that “anatomy is destiny”, meaning your biology determines your gender and behaviour.

Cultural and Social Expectations

  • In binary gender systems, individuals are expected to:
    • Conform to norms associated with their assigned gender at birth
    • Follow specific roles in language, clothing, behaviour, and social status
  • These expectations shape:
    • How people see themselves
    • How others relate to them
    • Broader power structures and inequalities

The Gender Binary in Western Society

  • The gender binary is deeply entrenched in Western cultures, acting as a foundation for many social systems, including:
    • Education
    • Employment
    • Healthcare
    • Law and media
  • Many argue it is also a root cause of gender inequality.

Psychology’s Role in Reinforcing the Binary

  • Historically, psychological research has:
    • Prioritised studies on gender differences
    • Framed sex and gender as biologically determined
    • Marginalised non-binary and gender-diverse experiences
  • This has contributed to:
    • Research bias
    • Unconscious reinforcement of gender stereotypes
    • A limited understanding of gender as a spectrum

Challenging the Binary

  • Those who do not conform to binary norms may face:
    • Social control, punishment, or discrimination
    • Pressure to fit into either “male” or “female” roles
  • Increasingly, researchers, activists, and clinicians advocate for:
    • Recognising gender diversity
    • Viewing gender as fluid, socially constructed, and personally experienced

Support for the Gender Binary [AO3)

1. Chromosomes and Hormones (Biological Sex)

(Linked to specification content on biological sex)

  • Biological sex is commonly defined by chromosomes (XX/XY) and sex hormones (testosterone, oestrogen, oxytocin).
  • These biological markers are used to classify individuals as male or female.
  • This perspective supports the idea that biological differences define gender, often summarised as:
    👉 “Anatomy is destiny.”

2. Biological Explanations of Gender Development

(Refer to specification content on chromosomes and hormones in gender development)

  • Gender traits and behaviours are explained through biological sex differences.
    • E.g. Testosterone → linked to aggression, competitiveness
    • E.g. Oestrogen/oxytocin → linked to nurturing behaviour
  • This reinforces the binary view that:
    • Males and females are fundamentally different
    • These differences are biologically driven, both physically and psychologically
  • Research often cited:
    • Neuroanatomical differences between male and female brains
    • Maccoby and Jacklin (1974): Evidence of behavioural differences between sexes

3. Evolutionary Explanations

(Links to the evolutionary approach in psychology)

  • Evolutionary theories argue that binary gender roles are adaptive:
    • Males → evolved to compete for mates (traits: aggression, risk-taking)
    • Females → evolved to nurture offspring (traits: caregiving, cooperation)
  • Suggests men and women are biologically suited to different roles in society
    👉 Supports the idea of fixed gender roles across cultures and time

4. Legal and Social Systems

  • Many legal systems and social structures are built on binary classifications:
    • Legal documents (e.g. passports, IDs) often require male/female categories
    • Policies, healthcare, education systems often assume a binary model
  • This institutional framework:
    • Reinforces binary thinking
    • Makes it more difficult for non-binary or intersex individuals to be recognised or accommodated

Challenges to the Gender Binary [AO3]

1. Diversity in Biological Sex

  • The sex binary assumes sex is dimorphic (two non-overlapping categories).
  • Most people with:
    • XX chromosomes develop female traits
    • XY chromosomes develop male traits
  • But research from biology, neuroscience, and neuroendocrinology challenges this:
    • Sex may exist on a spectrum, not as two fixed categories.
    • Examples:
      • People with mixed chromosome patterns (e.g. XX/XY mosaics)
      • Intersex individuals with ambiguous or mixed sex characteristics

Conclusion: Biological sex is more diverse than the binary model suggests.

2. Challenges to Biological Explanations of Gender

  • Traditional views link gender traits to biology (e.g. hormones, brain structure).
  • However, newer research shows:
    • Brains and hormones are not strictly male/female
    • Differences between genders are often small or inconsistent
  • See Appendix A, Activity 3: The Gendered Brain

Conclusion: The idea that biology alone determines gender is overly simplistic.

3. Janet Shibley Hyde – The Gender Similarities Hypothesis

The gender binary model proposes that males and females are psychologically very different. This view dominates the media etc. (‘Men are from Mars; Women are from Venus’ type thinking).

Hyde puts forward a different perspective: the gender similarities hypothesis which maintains that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. If men and women are more similar than different then it undermines the binary

Hyde’s work argues that males and females are more similar than different.

Her meta-analysis covered:

  • Cognitive abilities
  • Communication
  • Personality traits (e.g. aggression, leadership)
  • Wellbeing
  • Motor behaviours
  • Sexuality

Findings:

  • 78% of gender differences were small or close to zero
  • Notable exceptions:
    • Motor performance (e.g. throwing distance)
    • Physical aggression
    • Sexual behaviour/attitudes

Implications:

  • Undermines binary thinking
  • Challenges alpha bias (exaggeration of gender differences)
  • Overemphasising difference (gender binary) could impact negatively by devaluing one gender
  • over another, leading to stereotyping and discrimination.
  • Highlights social sensitivity: research that reinforces gender stereotypes can cause real-world harm (e.g. in workplaces or education)

4. Sandra Bem – The Lenses of Gender

Sandra Bem’s work demonstrates how, through gender polarisation, the gender binary is strengthened and considers the impact that this has on the life of women.

Bem identified three lenses that uphold the gender binary and contribute to female disadvantage:

  1. Biological Essentialism – gender differences are rooted in biology
  2. Gender Polarisation – male and female roles are seen as opposites
  3. Androcentrism – male experience is treated as the default

Key point: These lenses make social institutions appear neutral while actually reinforcing male dominance and inequality.

Further connections:

Non-Binary Gender Identity

Non-binary identities challenge the traditional idea that gender consists of only two categories: male and female.

These identities exist outside, between, or beyond the gender binary.

Non-binary identities disrupt the idea that gender is fixed, binary, or solely based on biological sex.

Evidence from surveys, census data, academic research, and cross-cultural anthropology supports a more inclusive, non-binary understanding of gender.

  • Monro (2019) describes “non-binary” as an umbrella term for those whose identity falls outside of or between male and female, at different times, or someone who does not experience or want to have a gender identity.
  • While most of the population identifies as a woman or a man, approximately 1 in 250 people in the United Kingdom identified as non-binary in a representative survey by Glen and Hurrell (2012).
  • According to the 2021 Census, approximately 30,000 people (0.06% of those aged 16 and over who answered) identified as non-binary, out of 262,000 (0.5%) who said their gender identity was different from their sex registered at birth.
  • The existence of non-binary identities challenges the idea that gender is solely determined by biology.
  • Globally, many cultures recognise gender identities beyond the binary system prevalent in many Western societies. Examples include:
    • Hijra in India: Many Hijras are born with male sexual characteristics but assume a religious role in Hindu culture, recognised as a third gender by India’s Supreme Court in 2014.
    • The Bugis people of South Sulawesi, Indonesia: They recognise multiple genders beyond the binary, such as Calalai (biological females presenting as masculine), Calabai (biological males adopting female roles without identifying as women), and Bissu (embodying both masculinity and femininity, holding spiritual roles).
    • Muxes in Oaxaca, Mexico: These are people assigned male at birth who dress and behave in ways associated with women, and their identity is accepted and included in the culture.
  • These cross-cultural studies suggest that gender is fluid and shaped by cultural, economic, and social factors, rather than being solely biological. Thus, they directly challenge biological explanations of gender development.

Hijra (India)

  • In India, the Hijra are the most common non-binary identity recognised today. Hijras have
    a long history in South Asia and are found in Hindu religious texts.
  • Many hijras are born with male sexual characteristics.
  • The hijra are underpinned by a unique culture, for example, they often leave home to join
    groups where they are educated in spirituality.
  • Hijras assume a religious role in Hindu culture, celebrating rituals like weddings and births.
    There is a common belief that hijras possess the power to bless or curse others.
  • In 2014, India’s Supreme Court recognised transgender people as a third gender.

The Bugis people: Calalai, Calabai, and Bissu (South Sulawesi)

  • The Bugis people of South Sulawesi, Indonesia recognise a number of genders beyond the
    binary.
  • Calalai: biological female who presents in what is traditionally considered to be masculine
    ways such as cutting their hair short and dressing in men’s clothes. They also take on a
    social position similar to men.
  • Calabai: biological males who adopt a role similar to that traditionally occupied by women.
    They don’t identify as women, reject the restrictions that women experience, and do not
    have their sexual characteristics altered. Calabai often oversee weddings.
  • Bissu, another gender, embodies the totality of masculinity and femininity. Bugis people
    believe that bissu surpass other genders, embodying a spiritual role. They perform
    spiritual rites, and they are believed to bridge the gap between this earthly world and the
    divine.

Muxes (Oaxaca, Mexico)

  • In Mexico’s southern state of Oaxaca, there are three genders: female, male and muxe.
  • There is acceptance of a third gender among the community and an inclusion of the
    identity in the culture and its traditions.
  • A muxe is a person assigned male at birth who dresses and behaves in ways otherwise
    associated with women.
  • Muxes have been celebrated since pre-Hispanic times and are not forced to adopt a binary
    world view.

4. Gender Fluid Identity

Gender fluid identity falls under the broader non-binary umbrella.

  • It is an unfixed and dynamic identity, meaning a person’s gender expression, gender identity, or both, can change over time.
  • Katz-Wise (2020) suggests that gender fluidity can be a way to explore gender before a more stable identity is established, or it can be a persistent state.
  • Individuals expressing gender fluidity may do so through their clothing, makeup, hairstyles, voice, and choice of pronouns, with no single “one-size-fits-all” approach.
  • Doyle (2022) found that non-binary adolescents may express more fluidity of their gender. In addition, the process of gender identity exploration and expression looks different for every individual and can evolve across an individual’s lifespan.
  • Katz-Wise et al (2023) notes that there is limited research focusing exclusively on gender
  • fluidity.
  • This concept directly challenges the view that gender is binary and fixed. Cross-cultural studies of gender fluidity also challenge biological explanations of gender identity.

Measuring Gender Identity: The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

Sandra Bem (1974) developed the BSRI to measure gender identity, particularly focusing on the concept of psychological androgyny.

Key Concept: Androgyny

  • Psychological androgyny: Possessing a balanced mix of both masculine and feminine traits
  • Challenges the idea that individuals must be strictly masculine or feminine
  • Bem argued that androgyny leads to greater adaptability and psychological health

Structure of the BSRI

  • A self-report questionnaire with 60 items
  • Participants rate how well traits describe them on a 7-point Likert scale
  • The traits fall into three groups:
    • 20 masculine traits (e.g., assertive, independent)
    • 20 feminine traits (e.g., compassionate, gentle)
    • 20 neutral traits (e.g., reliable, helpful)

Scoring and Classifications

Based on responses, individuals are scored along masculinity and femininity dimensions and classified into one of four categories:

ClassificationDescription
AndrogynousHigh in both masculine and feminine traits
MasculineHigh masculine, low feminine
FeminineHigh feminine, low masculine
UndifferentiatedLow in both masculine and feminine traits (added later)

Research Findings

  • In Bem’s original study:
    • 34% of males and 27% of females were classified as androgynous
    • Most participants were sex-typed (i.e., matched their gender with traditional traits)
  • Prakash et al. (2010): Found androgynous women in India had better mental health outcomes (e.g. lower depression)

Limitations of the BSRI [AO3)

  • Oversimplification: The BSRI score may oversimplify a person’s gender experience, as gender expression can change depending on context (e.g., work vs. family).
  • Temporal Validity: Developed in 1974, the BSRI may be outdated due to changes in societal gender roles and understanding. Some traits classified as feminine (e.g., “childlike” and “gullible”) may no longer be considered appropriate or relevant.
  • Sampling Bias: The original BSRI was created using Western students, which may limit its generalisability to older age groups or other cultures.
  • Challenging Findings: Some research, like that by Adams and Sherer, found that masculine males and females appeared to be better adjusted on measures like assertiveness and self-efficacy, which contradicts Bem’s claim that androgyny is always most beneficial.

Cognitive explanations of gender development

Cognitive explanations of gender development focus on how children’s thinking processes and understanding of gender develop as they grow.

The cognitive approach in psychology generally studies internal mental processes such as memory, perception, attention, and reasoning.

It proposes that information received from our senses is processed by the brain, and this processing directs our behaviour.

Cognitive theories are considered “active processes” because children actively process information and mature in their mental consideration of gender.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) proposed a cognitive-developmental theory to explain gender development, suggesting that children can only learn gender-appropriate behaviours once they understand that gender is constant and unchangeable.

This understanding develops gradually through a series of maturational stages, meaning children progress through these stages at different speeds but always in the same order.

Kohlberg’s theory, like other cognitive theories, is considered a nomothetic approach because it focuses on establishing theories of information processing that apply to all people.

Kohlberg’s theory outlines three stages of gender understanding:

1. Gender Identity / Gender Labelling (Age 2-3):

  • At this stage, children learn to identify their own gender (e.g., “I am a boy” or “I am a girl”) and can also recognise others as mal